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ENGAGEMENT / ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

When working with children within homeless families it is important to be aware of what your role is in supporting the child. Be aware of the limitations of your role, for generalist SAAP workers these can include; a lack of time and resources to work intensively with children. This will immediately impact on what support you can offer a child. Issues requiring intensive support are best referred to specific support agencies.

Regardless of the time you have available, you can still work effectively with children. You can provide children with practical skills they can take with them to:

  • Build resilience and self-esteem.
  • Identify their feelings.
  • Build on their coping strategies.
  • Manage their behaviour (including anger).
  • Build on their ability to resolve conflict.

General Tips

It is important to gain the trust of children you are working with. This depends on developing a good rapport with the child. Some general tips on engaging children and developing a good rapport with a child include:

  • It is important to turn up on time if you have an arranged appointment, if you are going to be late, phone to let the child know.
  • When working with children, ensure that you are on the same physical level as the child i.e. if the child is sitting on the floor, you should do the same.
  • Always try to use the child's language (good listening skills will help you to learn their vocabulary). Ensure you use simple and clear sentences and phrases.
  • Begin by introducing yourself to the child and explain your role and the role of your agency in simple easy language suitable to the child's age and stage of development. An example may be: 'Hi, my name is Sarah. I work here and it's part of my job to talk to you and find out what sort of things you like to do and how I might be able to help.'
  • Give children lots of positive feedback (children experiencing homelessness often have very low self esteem and may have difficulty accepting praise).
  • Be patient, allow children to go at their own pace.
  • Do not make promises you cannot keep.
  • Pay attention to the environment you and the child are in. Ensure it is safe and non-threatening to the child and has enough space, privacy and any equipment you may want to use to engage or assess the child (i.e. paper and pencils for drawing, games).

Engagement

It can be difficult to engage children, particularly if they have experienced recent stress and trauma. Focusing on an activity can provide an opportunity for the worker and the child to get to know each other. An example of an activity that could be useful is:

  • 'I AM'. Write 'I am' on the top of a blank sheet of paper and ask the child to draw a picture of themselves anywhere they want on the page. (This activity can be found in 'Creative Therapy' written by Angela Hobday and Kate Ollier, this text is available for loan from the Resource Library - see Resources Section).
  • Encourage the child to talk about themselves by using open ended, non-threatening questions (i.e. What is your favourite colour, football team, food, animal? What is your favourite thing to do? What do you hate doing? What is your least favourite food, animal, colour?). The answers to the questions can be put on the drawing for example: 'I like purple', 'I hate tidying my room'.
  • It is important to have lots of coloured pencils, crayons, texta's for children to choose from. Other materials can also be really useful including material, other coloured paper, straws, beads, sparkles etc.
  • The Regional Children's Resource Library contains many other ideas and activities, suitable for all ages (see Resources Section).

Assessment

It is good practice to assess each child within a family and to develop separate support plans. The support plans do not have to be complex. Parents should be involved in this process to provide supporting information and history. For very young children, who are unable to verbalise their needs, the assessment will depend on worker observation and information from parents/caregivers. Older children can be active participants in their own assessment and development of a support plan. When assessing a child:

  • Have in your mind a clear understanding of your role and the role of your agency, know what support you can offer and what support issues that may need to be referred to another agency.
  • Collect enough information that allows you to determine the best course of action needed to best support the child.
  • Do not collect detailed information on issues that are best referred to specialist support agencies (i.e. sexual abuse, physical abuse, family violence).
  • If a child chooses to discuss these issues with you, listen and reassure the child that you believe them. Then make a referral to an appropriate specialist support service. Ensure you discuss the support options with the child, involving the non-offending parent/care giver, and let them know how you will proceed.
  • When assessing a child ensure that you collect information on their likes and dislikes, favourite activities, and any worries they may have (i.e. about school, family, housing etc.).
  • The child can be assisted to develop goals in each of the support areas that have been identified in the assessment, forming the basis of the support plan. Alternatively, if the child is too young to be involved in this process you can develop a worker action plan outlining what tasks need to be completed in each support area (i.e. education, recreation, health etc.).
  • When assessing parents, ensure you ask how parents are coping with the needs of their children, their assessment of the children's needs (including health, emotional wellbeing, behaviour, education etc.), how they feel the children are coping with the situation they are in etc. It is also important to collect information on protective services involvement, other support services that may be currently involved or involved in the past, any custody arrangements, and other significant adults in the child's life.
  • Let the parent/caregiver know that you would like to assess their child/ren separately and why. Explain that you will seek information that allows you to identify the child's needs and work out the best way forward. If there are issues the child needs specialist support around, explain you will make links with the relevant service.
  • It is important to communicate respect for the parents role as an important adult in the child's life and a source of information on their child/ren's strengths and areas for concern.
  • Ongoing communication with parents is vital for a successful working relationship with all members of a family.

Dealing with Feelings

Once rapport is established, the best way to explore a child's feelings is allow them to speak freely when they feel they are safe to do so. Respecting children's feelings and needs not only helps them to feel safe but also gives them a sense of being in control.

  • Respond to children's feelings and validate them (i.e. I can understand that makes you angry, sad, happy etc.).
  • Assist children to identify and acknowledge how they are feeling and why they are feeling that way. Once children are able to identify their feelings they gain a greater sense of control over their lives.
  • Give permission to children to express their feelings and assist them to choose appropriate forms of expression.
  • Assist children to share their feelings effectively with those close to them to resolve conflict.
  • Model effective communication skills and appropriate expression of emotions.

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THEORIES OF CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

PIAGET

Developmental Psychologist who was interested in how knowledge/ intelligence changes with age. Piaget believed there are five main stages to a child's development (relates to cognitive development).

Sensorimotor Stage Age 0 to 2 years

Child uses senses and bodily motion to develop practical intelligence relating to space, time, causality, means and ends, and relationships.

This stage is marked by a lack of development of the object concept, which is the notion that an object continues to exist even when it is not picked up by the senses (i.e. seen, heard, smelt). At this stage a child is unable to recognise the existence of an object unless s/he can pick it up with their senses.

Pre-Operational Stage Age 2 to 7 years

A child in this stage of development relies more heavily on immediate perception and direct experience than on logical operations, is able to represent objects and events that are no longer present.

A child is very egocentric at this stage, they feel the world revolves around them (i.e. the sun is following me). They see the world from their own point of view and believe that everyone has the same view as them. They are unable to see that people have their own opinions.

Concrete Operational Stage Age 7 to 11 years

A child in this stage of development is beginning to think with some logic, however requires some concrete materials for this to occur. Developing a scientific approach.

Formal Operations Stage Age 12 years onwards

Capable of abstract scientific thought.

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THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

ERIKSON

Developmental Psychologist interested in the psychosocial development of children. He believed there are five main stages of emotional/ social development.

STAGE 1: ORAL-SENSORY BASIC CONFLICT: Trust versus Mistrust Age 0 to 18 months

Important event: Feeding

The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust. Trust is developed if parent is responsive and consistent with all basic needs being met.

ELEMENTS FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME

The child's need for care, familiarity, comfort, stimulation and nourishment are met. Parental consistency and responsiveness is essential for the sense of trust to develop. The sense of trust is not only in relationship with the parent but also in themselves and his/her ability to handle his needs.

ELEMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OUTCOME

Babies who are not securely attached to their parents are less cooperative and more aggressive in their interactions. As they grow older the child may become timid and withdrawn since he/she has given up hope of ever achieving his/her goals. They also explore their environment with less enthusiasm and persistence.

Erikson believes that the development of a healthy personality is contingent upon the formation of a basic trust - the individual's belief that his existence is meaningful.

STAGE 2: MUSCULAR-ANAL BASIC CONFLICT: Autonomy versus Doubt/ Shame Age 18 months to 3 years

Important event: Toilet Training

Self-control and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage. Children can do more on their own. Toilet training is an important event at this stage, children also begin to dress and feed themselves. This is how the toddler strives for autonomy. A parent's level of protectiveness will limit the child's ability to achieve autonomy. If the parent is not supportive and reinforcing, the child will feel shameful and learn to doubt his or her abilities. Children who experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in later life.

ELEMENTS FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME

The child must take more responsibility for his or her own feeding, toileting and dressing. Parents must be reassuring yet avoid overprotection.

ELEMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OUTCOME

If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child's efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel shame, they may learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms.

STAGE 3: LOCOMOTOR BASIC CONFLICT: Initiative versus Guilt Age 3 to 6 years
Important event: Independence

In this stage the child continues to be assertive and to take the initiative. Playing and hero-worshipping are an important form of initiative for children. Children in this stage are eager for responsibility. It is essential for parents to confirm the child's initiative is accepted no matter how small it may be. If the child is not given a chance to be responsible and do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop. The child may come to believe that what they want to do is wrong.

ELEMENTS FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME

In order for a positive outcome in this stage, the child must learn to accept without guilt, that certain things are not allowed. Children must be guilt free when using their imagination and reassured that it is okay to play certain adult roles.

ELEMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OUTCOME

If children are not allowed to do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop and they may come to believe that what they want is always wrong.

STAGE 4: LATENCY BASIC CONFLICT: Industry versus Inferiority Age 6 to 11 years
Important event: School

The important event at this stage is the attendance at school. As a student, the children have a need to be productive and do work on their own. They are both physically and mentally ready for it. Interaction with peers at school also plays an imperative role of child development in this stage. The child for the first time has a wide variety of events to deal with, including academics, group activities, and friends. Difficulty with any of these leads to a sense of inferiority.

ELEMENTS FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME

It is essential for the child at his stage to discover pleasure in being productive and the desire to succeed. The child's relationship with peers in school and the neighbourhood become increasingly important.

ELEMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OUTCOME

Difficulty with the child's ability to move between the world at home and the world of peers can lead to a feeling of inferiority.

STAGE 5: ADOLESCENCE BASIC CONFLICT: Identity versus Identity Confusion Age 12 to 18 years
Important event: Peer relationships

At this stage, adolescents are in search of an identity that will lead then to adulthood. Adolescents make a strong effort to answer the question "Who am I?" The healthy resolution of earlier conflicts can now serve as a foundation for the search for an identity. If the child overcomes earlier conflicts they are better prepared to search for an identity. Did they develop the basic sense of trust? Do they have a strong sense of industry to believe in themselves?

ELEMENTS FOR A POSITIVE OUTCOME

The adolescent must make a conscious search for identity. This is built on the outcome and resolution to conflict in earlier stages.

ELEMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OUTCOME

If the adolescent cannot make deliberate decisions and choices, especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and life in general, role confusion becomes a threat.

SUBSEQUENT STAGES INCLUDE:

  • Young Adulthood (intimacy versus isolation)
  • Middle Adulthood (Generativity versus Stagnation)
  • Maturity (Integrity versus Despair)

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STAGES OF CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

Every child is unique, as such children may move through the developmental stages at different rates. The following information is aimed as a guide to provide you with information on the milestones children generally achieve within each stage.

Baby newborn to 9 months of age
Social/ Emotional Development

  • Responds to cuddling, rocking and human voices.
  • Smiles in the first month.
  • Interested in human faces.
  • Becomes fascinated with animals.

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • 'Out of sight, out of mind' stage.
  • Very curious about what they can see.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Sucks, grabs, sleeps.
  • Explores body and hands
  • Kicks (especially loves this without nappy).
  • Soon co-ordinates hands and eyes.
  • Becomes interested in moving objects, cars or colourful mobiles.
  • Reaches out to grasp.
  • Explores with mouth by chewing things.
  • Shakes and kicks rattle.
  • Pushes up then sits up.
  • Crawls.
  • Waves goodbye.
  • Pulls up to standing position.

Communication/ Language Development

  • Cries and goos.
  • Holds 'bubble' conversations.
  • Uses sounds to get attention.
  • Interested in colourful pictures and music and singing.

The older baby 9 months to 18 months of age
Social/ Emotional Development

  • Very reliant on familiar adults.
  • Mood changes suddenly.
  • Anxious at unfamiliar faces.
  • Likes watching other children and adults.
  • Begins to learn simple rules.
  • Does not understand the need to share.
  • Tests will against others by refusals and wanting own way.

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • Very interested in sounds.
  • Limited memory.
  • Very curious about everything.
  • Experiments with everything around.
  • Follows simple instructions.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Crawls well and stands.
  • Takes steps, first by holding an adults hand, but fairly clumsy.
  • Begins to climb.
  • Investigates things by pushing, pulling and banging.
  • Starts to hold things between thumb and first finger.
  • Will practice skills over and over - repetitive play.

Communication/ Language Development

  • Some can say a few words (mama, dada).
  • Gurgles and babbles.
  • Imitates sounds.
  • Very interested in books and blocks.
  • Enchanted by new objects and likes to play with everything.

The toddler 18 months to 2 ½ years of age
Social/ Emotional Development

  • Plays alone but enjoys company.
  • Dependant on familiar adults.
  • Likes to help with simple tasks.
  • Not yet ready to share.
  • Uneasy with unfamiliar adults.
  • Stares and watches others.

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • Has short attention span.
  • Remembers people, places and books.
  • Sometimes thinks before doing.
  • Points to objects and directions.
  • Understands simple questions.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Toddles and falls frequently.
  • Kicks and throws a ball clumsily.
  • Able to use toilet but will forget if busy.
  • Holds objects with hands.
  • Likes playing with 'push-a-long' and 'pull-a-long' toys.

Communication/ Language Development

  • Imitates sounds, particularly animal sounds.
  • Vocabulary from 20 to 200 words.
  • Can name food and body parts.
  • Can use two word phrases.
  • Likes to play with noisemakers.
  • Can play with dough and crayons but likes to eat them too.

The older toddler 2 ½ years to 3 ½ years of age
Social/Emotional Development

  • Likes to play alone but have other children about.
  • Likes adult attention.
  • Can be separated from familiar adults for short periods.
  • Needs help to understand about sharing.
  • Is possessive about playthings.
  • Often fights with other children; usually over a toy.
  • Have tantrums.
  • Often rebellious and negative.
  • Gives orders - e.g. "go away".

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • Understand most of what is said.
  • Asks frequent questions.
  • Likes stories and books.
  • Can follow simple directions.
  • Recognises object and people in pictures.
  • Can play with simple puzzles.
  • Can point out body parts.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Runs and falls frequently.
  • Walks up stairs one step at a time.
  • Can move fingers independently. Learning to cut with scissors.
  • Can hold small objects.
  • Jumps with two feet.
  • Can build with blocks one on top of another.
  • Able to control bladder.
  • Likes to help dress him/herself.

Communication/ Language Development

  • Uses words together (more than two).
  • Uses some grammatical forms.
  • Vocabulary between 50 - 500 words.
  • Greatly increasing vocabulary.
  • Copies words and actions.
  • Likes play-acting and pretend games.
  • Likes to make music and sing.
  • Interested in rhymes.
  • Likes to play with dough, blocks, old clothes, pencils, paint, crayons and glue.

The young child 3 ½ years to 5 years of age
Social/ Emotional Development

  • Learning to share affection.
  • Better able to share objects with playmates.
  • Displays a wide range of feelings from love through to hate.
  • Exploring own body and discovering sex-role characteristics.
  • Often demands attention be focused on him/herself.
  • Demands to do things independently.
  • Enjoys fantasy play (dressing up)

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • Developing self-discipline.
  • Independent and beginning to be responsible.
  • Begins to understand concepts of tallest, biggest, same and more.
  • Things more about problems and is able to solve them.
  • Line between truth and fantasy sometimes blurred.
  • Has increased attention span.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Learning to better coordinate large and small muscle control.
  • Climb ladders, steps, trees and playground equipment.
  • Hand dominance begins to be established.
  • Better able to balance (on one leg, walk along balance beam).

Communication/ Language Development

  • Able to structure sentences with few grammatical errors (verbally).
  • Demanding of adults (i.e. "Don't Look", "Don't Talk").
  • Likes to 'show off'.
  • By five years has a vocabulary of 1500 words or more.
  • Asks many questions.

The primary schooler age 5 years to 6 years
Social/ Emotional Development

  • Not as demanding in his/her relationship with others
  • Uses play to express him/herself freely.
  • Can be impatient with others,
  • Forms erratic friendships.
  • Begins to differentiate self from parents by alternately opposing, then including parents.
  • Continues to be very self-centred, still sees world almost entirely from their own point of view.

Cognitive/ Intellectual Development

  • Able to maintain play for longer periods of time (longer attention span).
  • Integrating physical knowledge with intellectual knowledge.
  • Interested in letters and numbers.
  • Able to show awareness of past and present.
  • Can attend closely with just verbal instructions.
  • Enjoys being challenged and thrives on completing tasks.
  • Has more complex thinking, can design and plan.

Physical/ Motor Development

  • Highly physically active.
  • Greater control over large and fine movements, movements are more precise and deliberate.
  • Increased muscle strength.
  • Has increased dexterity and eye/hand control.
  • Hand dominance is mostly established.

Communication/ Language Development

  • Is enthusiastic and inquisitive about everyday events.
  • Has a vocabulary between 10,000 to 14,000 words.

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FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE DEVELOPMENT

  • Speech and Language Delay
  • Development Delay
  • Emotional Immaturity
  • Poor Socialisation
  • Trauma or Abuse
  • Parental Rejection
  • Stress and Disruption

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BEHAVIOURAL INDICATORS OF STRESS AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Factors that influence the way children respond to Stress, Trauma or Disruption

  • The child's age and stage of Development.
  • The child's innate temperament.
  • Their level of attachment to their parents.
  • The relationship to the person creating the stress or trauma.
  • The response the child received initially following disclosure (if applicable).
  • The level of emotional support available to the child.

Behavioural Indicators of Stress in Children
Children can display a range of behaviours in response to stress. The following information is aimed as a guide to assist workers to identify stress in children as it relates to their age and stage of development. Remember, each child is unique so individual responses will differ from child to child.

0 TO 2 YEARS OF AGE

  • Non-organic failure to thrive.
  • Poor general health.
  • Delay in growth and/or social and motor development.
  • Apathy and listlessness.
  • Fretfulness.
  • No smiles.
  • No language response.
  • Rocking or head banging.
  • Frozen watchfulness.
  • Pervasive unhappiness.

2 TO 6 YEARS OF AGE

  • Fluctuating speech problems (stammering, loss of words).
  • Fears and night terrors.
  • Excessive fear of strangers.
  • Lethargy, passivity.
  • Irritability, crying, tantrums.
  • Problems with eating, sleeping, elimination, toileting.
  • Timidity towards people and experiences.
  • Partial return to infantile manners.
  • Aggression.
  • Unresponsiveness (does not communicate with the care giver or other children).
  • Attention seeking behaviour (possibly even ADD type symptoms).
  • Excessively clinging behaviour.
  • Affection seeking behaviour which is often misinterpreted as over affectionate.
  • Poor appetite.
  • Poor sleeping patterns.
  • Fears failure and lacks self confidence for tackling new learning tasks. Tends to choose safe activities with no risk of failure and resists tackling new words in reading (i.e. does same puzzle, reads same book).
  • Behavioural extremes, from being over compliant, passive, fearful to being overly demanding or aggressive.
  • Habit formation such as sucking, biting.
  • Lagging in emotional speech and intellectual development.
  • Psychoneurotic reactions including hysteria, obsessions, compulsions, phobias and hypochondria.
  • Evidence of depression or low self-esteem.
  • No tears or complaints when hurt or distressed in circumstances where emotional expressions would be normal.
  • Overly adaptive behaviours that are either inappropriately adult (i.e. parenting other children) or inappropriately infantile (head banging, rocking, thumb sucking).

7 TO 12 YEARS OF AGE

  • Anxiety and over sensitivity to new experiences (school, relationships, separation).
  • Lack of attentiveness, learning difficulties, disinterest in learning.
  • Poor school attendance.
  • Acting out; lying, stealing, temper outbursts, inappropriate social behaviour.
  • Appearance of mannerisms; tics, rituals.
  • Bodily complaints; eating and sleeping problems, aches and pains.
  • Difficulties and rivalry with peers, siblings, adults, constant bickering.
  • Relates to peers in a superficial way with a lack of genuine attention.
  • Distrust of others (especially if the child has has multiple care givers) there is an undercurrent of anxiety as the child tests workers and care givers, expecting rejection.
  • Bad moods, irritability, unco-operative temper tantrums.
  • Inability and unwillingness to do things for themselves.
  • Moodiness and withdrawal; few friends or personal relationships.
  • Boredom.
  • Self-destructive behaviour and attempted suicide.

13 YEARS to 15 YEARS OF AGE

  • Apprehension, fears, guilt and anxiety regarding sex, health and guidelines. Defiant, negative, impulsive behaviour.
  • Frequent somatic or hypochondriacal behaviour, denial of ordinary illnesses.
  • Learning difficulties, deficient from normal pattern.
  • Excessive sexual pre-occupation.
  • Deterioration in personal relationships with adults or peers.
  • Immaturity or precocious behaviour.
  • Unwillingness to assume autonomy.

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PLAY DEVELOPMENT AND IDEAS

As well as being fun and fulfilling, play is about gaining and perfecting a whole range of skills and abilities, which positively contributes to a child's overall development.

Physical Development - including gross motor skills (enabling children to perform large movements i.e. throwing, catching etc.), fine motor skills (enabling manipulation of objects i.e. drawing, tying shoelaces etc.) and vision.

Cognitive Development - gaining knowledge and skills for processing and using information in a meaningful way. Skills include imagination, creativity, abstract thought, logical reasoning and problem solving.

Language Development - learning to talk involves the ability to vocalise (speak), comprehend and increase vocabulary. Play can assist children to express their opinions and explore their thoughts.

Emotional and Social Development - including the development of independence, self help skills and an understanding of the social and cultural context. Control over emotions develops together with an understanding of acceptable ways in which to demonstrate opinions and feelings.

Moral Development - including the development of an understanding of values such as honesty, fairness, respect, as well as concepts such as right and wrong, responsibility and consequences of actions.

Children of all ages love to play. When playing with children remember:

  • Follow the child's lead; making the sure the game is safe.
  • Let the child make the rules.
  • Listen.
  • Talk about what the child is doing and encourage them.
  • Allow plenty of time.
  • Allow for experimentation and mistakes.
  • Appreciate and encourage a child's effort.

Below are a few ideas for children of different ages:
(The Regional Children's Resource Program Library has many more ideas for play activities- see catelogue in the Resources section of this website. See also the Useful Links section for websites containing information on activities for children.)

The infant 0-12 months

  • Talking, singing.
  • Reading stories.
  • Peek-a-boo
  • Hide and Seek (for young babies use an object for them to seek)
  • Imitation games (babies love to imitate you laughing, coughing, poking out you tongue, flutter eyes, moving hand, arms, feet etc.)
  • Chasing- when crawling (give the baby a head start, then chase them)

The Toddler 12-24 months

  • Sand Play
  • Water Play
  • Block building and simple puzzles
  • Making music (banging, singing)
  • Drawing
  • Naming/word games (pointing to an object or feature on your face and give it a name)

2-3 years

  • Clay modelling
  • Drawing
  • Play Dough
  • Guessing games - i.e. describe something well known to the child, give clues until they can guess the object
  • Dancing and playing home made instruments

4-5 years

  • Cubby /Tent building
  • Dress Ups and Pretend Play
  • Finger painting
  • Matching games i.e. which objects go together?
  • Make finger puppets, face masks etc.

6-8 years

  • Painting, drawing, colouring in.
  • Dramatic Play i.e. role play using real objects
  • Ball games
  • Climbing
  • Card games - i.e. snap, matching games (remember: young children need to win more than they lose, you may need to let them change the rules).
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